I was working on my wife's 2009 lincoln MkS and the passenger side CV joint had a carrier bearing that sits on two studs but it is not secured with nuts or anything.
Is that normal?
Video:
I've never serviced one but there are threads, so yeah, I'd want nuts on there.
I couldn't find a vid of an '09 MKS or Taurus but I found a TRQ vid for '11-19 Exploder which uses the same style and e-torx head studs and, yeah, there are nuts on there that take a 13mm socket (says the video)
Also not sure why you couldn't pull the studs with an E-torx socket (other than rust), determine thread pitch and substitute bolts. 99% chance it's M8x1.25
Based on the video you recorded, I would say there is no damage at all. The CV axle is captured when the outer axle nut is torqued so limited lateral play occurs when the suspension and steering articulates. If you look at the two studs with the missing nuts, only the innermost section of the studs are rusted. To me, this suggests that the axle only moved laterally ~1/4" which allowed moisture/salt to reach the base of the studs behind the carrier bearing plate. There is likely more than 1/4" of lateral play built into the inner/outer C/V joints (combined).